Adorno explained how the structure of popular music began to follow the same set pattern, in order to reignite that familiarity audiences would have from one song to the next. To an extent, an ideology is formed where the target demographic perceives the standardized music as the next 'must-listen' and therefore becoming popular. The basic song structures remain very similar and certain characteristics are manipulated to form some 'shallow' variation of one song to the next; “Standardization extends from the most general features to the most specific ones. Best known is the rule that the chorus consists of thirty two bars and that the range is limited to one octave and one note” (Adorno 1941). Strinati's study on Adorno and popular culture also states how standardised entertainment can be labelled with capitalist ideologies, the 'social cement' of popular culture enlightens the public to the commodities for which they don't have yet would want, adjusting people to the realities of their every day lives “Popular music and film do not actually function to deny this awareness, but they do act to reconcile people to their fate. The fantasies and happiness, the resolutions and reconciliations, offered by popular music and film make people realise how much their real lives lack these qualities...” (Strinati 1995, pp.69).
The introduction of Radio during the first quarter of the 1900's, particularly at the time of Adorno's writing, can be seen as a primary source for standardised music due to the nature of broadcasting. Meanwhile, moving image/silent film was growing technologically and during the 1930's, cinema was reaching new heights and coined the 'Studio Era' (or Golden Age). In 1927 'The Jazz Singer' was released to critical success due to the introduction of sound to mainstream film. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Warner Brothers, Twentieth Century Fox and many other studio's rose to prominence and began funding a 'factory line' of movies, producing cycles of films in imitation of previous originals. Themes ranged from costume drama's, westerns, musicals, mysteries, comedies and Broadway shows. Thousands of actors and staff were on set salaries and, despite substantial investment by the Studios, profits were huge (nearing $2 Billion in 1946).
Hundreds of theatres were owned by many of the major Hollywood studio's across America, and each of them required new material in order to match demand. This high earning 'studio system' was accompanied by the first major form of censorship in mainstream cinema, the Hays code. It was introduced in 1930 but wasn't enforced until 1934. Hays code was a set of censorship guidelines created by Will Hays due to threat from Government overruling/boycott, in response to the sexual natures of some early film, such as 'She Done Him Wrong'.
With marketing and censorship values in place, Hollywood grew into a successful business empire by using the standardised formulas of film. Regarding the technicalities, a classical narrative is a particular reoccurring element to film, where a character(s) are presented with a significant obstacle in which they must over come before fulfilling their desires. In almost all cases, these were fulfilled. Linear narration was also somewhat imperative, with any back story and/or past events told in 'flashbacks'. As the industry grew, so did the expertise of film editors. Continuous editing became naturalised in Hollywood film, sparing single shot scenes for multi angled, eye line perspectives, in order to emphasize character expressions and details; “continuity editing gradually replaced single-shot scenes because the film-makers could provide better clarity for the viewer. Individual character expressions and details could be emphasized via closer views exactly at the moments when they were most significant to our understanding of the plot.” (David Bordwell, 2010)
Of course, many relevant social aspects affected the formulas of mid twentieth century film. Racism and sexism were still unchallenged aspects of American society and so were often prevalent themes in Hollywood. Female cast were secondary to male and only served to compliment their male counterparts, whereas racism emerged from the ignorance to particular cultures beyond American shores. For example, in the 1932 film 'White Zombie', the protagonist discusses the whereabouts of his newly-wed after she has been captured and poisoned by local Haitian natives, only to remark that he wishes her dead than to be at the disposal of the locals; “Surely you don't think she's alive, in the hands of natives. Oh no! Better dead than that” (White Zombie, 1932). Censorship and family values also restricted the content that movies could show/imply, such as any sexual suggestion being forbidden unless the characters were married.
Throughout the twentieth century, Hollywood's domination became inconsistent. The arrival of Television in the 1950's caused a decline in cinema attendance, and so the 'Studio Era' was coming to an end. The rate of film production began to slow down and by the late 1950's/early 60's, films began to adopt more mature themes (similar those pre-Hays Code in the early 30's) until 1966 where a 'suggestion for mature audiences' was introduced as an advertising label. During this transition, the frequency of standardization became less apparent and various films began to challenge the typical structure and conventions of mainstream cinema. Alfred Hitchcocks 'Psycho' (1960) had a particularly large portion of it's runtime devoted to developing the female lead character of Marion Crane, only for her to be murdered in the infamous shower scene. Initially, the mix of genre and disrupted narrative generated mixed reactions and reviews, as it was such a deviation from the standards in popular culture, but a successful box office return prompted a re-review. In turn, Hollywood subsumed the innovations of 'Psycho' and in due time these aspects were to form the 'slasher' genre.
Over the following years, popular culture had become integral for capitalist profit and American cinema began to regain it's previous success and dominance. After the initial success of films such as 'Halloween' (1978), many more films of similar genre conventions followed suit in order to 'cash in' and repeat success. One example would be 'Friday the 13th' (1980), an instant response by Paramount Pictures to the emergence and popularity of the 'psycho slasher' genre. The structure is as similar and standardised as 'Halloween', and it's unique properties such as the 'back story' of 'Jason Vorhees' is pseudo individualism.
In the present day, Americanisation can be considered a homogenizing influence to popular culture on a global scale. With it came the same capitalist ideologies and standardised structures, associated with Hollywood, on a market which has had less exposure, as stated in the work by John Storey “... popular culture has been socially and institutionally central in America for longer and in a more significant way than in Europe.” (Storey 2001 pp.9). In effect, all this means is that Hollywood cinema has gained a much larger margin for profit across continents. With this in mind, Hollywood studios have been able to resume the 'production line' of films whilst yielding large profits and enough funding to inject back into the industry to 'churn' out more. Much of the newest line of films retain the same standardised characteristics of old, yet the 'veneer' of individualisation and ideologies keeps most film significantly dissimilar enough so to maintain popularity.
Hollywood has now entered a new spectrum with the seemingly endless line of remade films and sequels, particularly in the horror genre, which are capitalising on the success of their previous incarnations. Remakes are often extremely similar to their older counterparts yet are merely updated with present day, relatable ideologies and commodities. 'A Nightmare on Elm Street' (2010) is a good example of this, as a standardised remake of the 1984 film of the same name. The original followed the 'Halloween' formula of 'psychotic killer versus teenagers' whereas the new version is near identical, but with updated special effects and a more relatable, modern cast. Much like the 80's version, the film is set in quaint, modern American suburbia and the teenage cast naively attempt to survive against a supernatural antagonist.
Along with remakes, an over abundance of sequels is very much still a fundamental technique in 'milking' a particular franchise. So much so that some films have annual releases at particular times of the year in order to provide and suit the demand of the public. 'Saw' (2004) was a serial killer 'thriller' about a set of characters trying to escape situations of danger which they had been left in. The film gained praise and financial success due to it's variation on the 'thriller' genre and substantial plot twists. As a result, by 2010, 'Saw' became a franchise with 6 sequels to follow from 2004. Each film is a continuation of the last and follows the exact same formula as the rest, introducing (mainly new) protagonists left in torturous situations followed by a 'twist' in the narrative. The Saw sequels are released annually during October, and marketed and hyped for the Halloween season due to the public's desire for horror films during that period. One of the significant selling points of the 'Saw' franchise is the extreme amount of gore and torture which the characters suffer, yet the films have become so standardised that the 'shock factor' is diminished with each release and the public desensitised. To counter this, Lions Gate Entertainment merely increase the amount of gore and imaginative, far-fetched devices used to kill rather than change the structure and narrative.
Over decades of standardised film, popular culture has managed to maintain and meet consumer demand successfully. This could perhaps be seen as a foreshadowing to the direction we'll see film go in the future. The continuity of standardisation can be viewed detrimental to the art form and consumers reactions to modern cinema demonstrate the effects of 'the power of the culture industry's ideology is such that conformity has replaced consciousness.' No longer do the public question, critique and desire unique experiences within entertainment but conform to what mass culture presents to them. “This drive to conformity tolerates no deviation from, or opposition to, nor an alternative vision of, the existing social order. Deviant, oppositional and alternative ways of thinking and acting become increasingly impossible to envisage as the power of the culture industry is extended over peoples minds.” (Strinati 1995, pp.63-64). It is safe to say that standardisation is as prevalent in modern cinema as it was in it's inception and in some sense more so. This is mainly down to the commercial appeal of Americanisation and the conformity which popular culture insists.
Thankfully, there are outlets for originality beyond that of popular culture and Hollywood. American Independent Cinema is becoming a more recognised source of individual film, gaining recognition from such events as Cannes Film Festival. American Independent Cinema is the result of many film makers choosing to produce their work outside of Hollywood jurisdiction and formula, and thus gains quite a cult following and sometimes decent commercial success. It is also considered a popular outlet for rising actors and actresses, many of them starring in independent film before going on to Hollywood recognition.
Digital distribution of the modern age has become a beneficial source for various film, including those made in different countries. Much like Roger Ebert predicted in 1987 “Ninety percent of the American motion-picture marketplace never shows art films. With this revolution in delivery and distribution, anyone, in any size town or hamlet, will see the movies he or she wants to see.” (Ebert, 1987). Perhaps the future of cinema will be less bleak in order to evolve and compete with the exposure and information an individual can claim from within their own homes.
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